Angolan War
The Angolan War, encompassing both the War of Independence (1961–1975) and the subsequent Civil War (1975–2002), is a complex and multifaceted conflict that significantly shaped Angola's modern history. Below is a detailed chronological account highlighting key dates, figures, and incidents.
War of Independence (1961–1975):
February 4, 1961: The Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (MPLA), founded in 1956 and led by Dr. Agostinho Neto, initiated an armed uprising in Luanda, marking the beginning of the struggle against Portuguese colonial rule.
March 15, 1961: The Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto, launched attacks in the northern regions, further intensifying the conflict.
1966: Jonas Savimbi, previously associated with the FNLA, established the União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (UNITA), adding another dimension to the liberation movements.
January 5, 1975: Leaders of the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA met in Mombasa, Kenya, agreeing to cease hostilities and engage in constitutional negotiations with Portugal.
January 10–15, 1975: The Alvor Agreement was signed in Alvor, Portugal, setting November 11, 1975, as the date for Angola's independence and establishing a transitional government.
November 11, 1975: Portugal officially granted Angola independence. The MPLA declared the establishment of the People's Republic of Angola in Luanda, while the FNLA and UNITA proclaimed their own government based in Huambo.
Civil War (1975–2002):
1975–1976: The MPLA, with Cuban military support, secured control over Luanda and other key regions, while South African forces, supporting UNITA and the FNLA, eventually withdrew.
1980s: The conflict intensified with increased foreign involvement. The Soviet Union provided substantial military aid to the MPLA, while the United States and South Africa supported UNITA. Notably, South African forces launched several incursions into Angola during this period.
May 31, 1991: The Bicesse Accords were signed in Lisbon, aiming to end the civil war by integrating UNITA into the national armed forces and scheduling elections.
September 29–30, 1992: Angola held its first multiparty elections. The MPLA's José Eduardo dos Santos led the presidential race, but the results were contested by UNITA, leading to a resurgence of conflict.
November 20, 1994: The Lusaka Protocol was signed in Lusaka, Zambia, attempting to establish peace by integrating UNITA into the government and military structures. However, implementation challenges persisted.
February 22, 2002: Jonas Savimbi was killed in combat, leading to a significant decline in UNITA's military capabilities.
April 4, 2002: The Luena Memorandum of Understanding was signed, effectively ending the civil war and initiating a process of national reconciliation.
Key Figures:
Dr. Agostinho Neto: Leader of the MPLA and the first President of Angola.
Holden Roberto: Founder and leader of the FNLA.
Jonas Savimbi: Founder and leader of UNITA.
José Eduardo dos Santos: Succeeded Neto as MPLA leader and served as President of Angola for several decades.
Notable Incidents:
Operation Askari (December 1983): A major South African military operation targeting SWAPO bases in southern Angola, which also impacted MPLA forces.
Jamba Conference (June 2, 1985): A meeting organized by American conservative activists at UNITA's headquarters, symbolizing international anti-communist solidarity.
The Angolan War's protracted nature and the involvement of various international actors underscore its complexity. The conflict had profound implications for Angola's political, social, and economic landscapes, the effects of which continue to influence the nation today.
References:
Human Rights Watch. "Angola: Arms Trade and Violations of the Laws of War Since the 1992 Elections." 1994. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/angola/
Wikipedia contributors. "Angolan War of Independence." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence
Wikipedia contributors. "Angolan Civil War." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War
Wikipedia contributors. "Lusaka Protocol." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusaka_Protocol
Major Causes
Decolonization and Power Struggles
After Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975, multiple factions—primarily the MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA—fought for control of the government, creating a power vacuum.
Cold War Proxy Conflict
The United States and its allies supported UNITA and FNLA, while the Soviet Union and Cuba backed the MPLA. This global rivalry fueled the conflict with financial and military aid.
Ethnic and Regional Divisions
Angola's diverse ethnic groups, including the Ovimbundu (UNITA's base) and the Mbundu (MPLA's base), were pitted against each other, exacerbating long-standing tensions.
Economic and Resource Competition
Angola’s rich natural resources, particularly oil and diamonds, became central to funding war efforts and created a struggle for control over these valuable assets.
Weak Governance and Colonial Legacy
Centuries of Portuguese colonial rule left Angola with poor infrastructure, inadequate institutions, and no unified political framework, making it vulnerable to internal conflicts.
Major Effects
High Death Toll and Displacement
The war resulted in approximately 500,000 deaths and displaced millions of people, leaving many Angolans as refugees in neighboring countries.
Economic Devastation
Angola’s economy was severely impacted, with agriculture disrupted and infrastructure destroyed. Despite oil wealth, the nation remained impoverished for decades.
Widespread Landmine Contamination
Millions of landmines were planted during the war, posing long-term threats to civilians and hindering agriculture and development.
Humanitarian Crisis
Famine, disease, and lack of basic services caused suffering for civilians, with many dependent on international aid.
Fragile Post-War Recovery
While the war ended in 2002, Angola faced challenges in rebuilding its political and social systems, including reconciling former enemies and addressing deep social inequalities.