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Mali
REPUBLIC OF MALI
Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, spanning over 1,241,238 square kilometers. It is bordered by Algeria to the north, Niger to the east, Mauritania to the northwest, Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast to the south, and Guinea and Senegal to the west. With a population of 21.9 million, 67% of which was under the age of 25 in 2017, Mali's capital and largest city is Bamako. The country has 13 official languages, with Bambara being the most widely spoken.
Mali comprises 19 regions, with its northern borders extending into the Sahara Desert and its southern part lying in the Sudanian savanna, intersected by the Niger and Senegal rivers. The economy is primarily based on agriculture and mining, particularly gold, making it the third-largest gold producer in Africa, alongside salt.
In 1892, Mali came under French colonial rule. By 1893, the French had appointed a civilian governor to administer the territory, then called French Sudan. Despite continued resistance, French authority was firmly established by 1905. French Sudan became part of the Federation of French West Africa, supplying labor to France's coastal colonies.
In 1958, the Sudanese Republic, as it was renamed, gained internal autonomy and joined the French Community. Early in 1959, it formed the Federation of Mali with Senegal. By March 31, 1960, France agreed to the federation's full independence, which was realized on June 20, 1960, with Modibo Keïta as its first president. Following Senegal's withdrawal from the federation in August 1960, the Republic of Mali was officially established on September 22, 1960, with Keïta as president.
President Keïta's tenure saw significant political and economic changes. He established a single-party state under the Sudanese Union-African Democratic Rally (US/RDA) and pursued socialist policies, including extensive nationalization. Keïta distanced Mali from the French Community and fostered close ties with the Eastern bloc. However, economic difficulties prompted a reevaluation of these policies, leading Mali to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some economic excesses.
On November 19, 1968, a bloodless coup led by young officers, including Lt. Moussa Traoré, ousted Keïta, establishing the Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN). The new regime aimed to implement economic reforms but faced internal political struggles and the devastating Sahelian drought. A new constitution approved in 1974 aimed to transition Mali toward civilian rule, but the military retained power. In 1976, the Democratic Union of the Malian People (UDPM) was formed, establishing a single-party state. General Traoré was elected president in 1979, but his consolidation of power faced challenges from student-led anti-government demonstrations and multiple coup attempts in the early 1980s.
The political situation stabilized in the 1980s, though Mali faced economic difficulties. In December 1985, a brief war with Burkina Faso over the Agacher strip erupted. The government then focused on economic reforms, including liberalizing cereal marketing, incentivizing private enterprise, and negotiating a structural adjustment agreement with the International Monetary Fund. Despite these efforts, public dissatisfaction grew due to austerity measures and perceived corruption among the ruling elite. In response to demands for multiparty democracy, the Traoré regime allowed limited political liberalization, including permitting multiple UDPM candidates in the 1988 National Assembly elections. However, the regime resisted full democratic reforms.
By 1990, cohesive opposition movements, such as the National Democratic Initiative Committee and the Alliance for Democracy in Mali (ADEMA), emerged. Ethnic tensions, particularly in the north, escalated with the return of Tuareg migrants from Algeria and Libya. The government's harsh response to perceived secessionist threats led to ongoing unrest, even after a peace accord was signed in January 1991.
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